V] 


<^ 


/a 


^;. 


c^. 


em  ^^*  V>' 


^a 


^a 


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IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


1.0 


i4  5 


ilM  IM 
IM  mil  2.2 


I.I 


2.0 


1.8 


Photogmphic 

Sciences 
Corporation 


1.25      1.4 

1.6 

^ 6"     — 

► 

23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  14580 

(716)  873-4503 


CIHM/ICMH 

Microfiche 

Series. 


CIHM/ICMH 
Collection  de 
microfiches. 


Canadian  Institute  for  Historical  Microreproductions  /  Institut  Canadian  de  microreproductions  historiques 


Technical  and  Bibliographic  Notes/Notes  techniques  et  bibliographiques 


The  Institute  has  attempted  to  obtain  the  best 
original  copy  available  for  filming.  Features  of  this 
copy  which  may  be  bibliojraphically  unique, 
which  may  alter  any  of  the  images  in  the 
reproduction,  or  which  may  significantly  change 
the  usual  method  of  filming,  are  checked  below. 


D 


D 

D 
D 
D 

n 


71 


n 


D 


n 


Coloured  covers/ 
Couverture  de  couleur 


□    Covers  damaged/ 
Couverture  endommagee 


Covers  restored  and/or  laminated/ 
Couverture  restaur6e  et/ou  pellicul6e 

Cover  title  missing/ 

Le  titre  de  couverture  manque 

Coloured  maps/ 

Cartes  g6ographiques  en  couleur 

Coloured  ink  (i.e.  other  than  blue  or  black)/ 
Encre  de  couleur  (i.e.  autre  que  bleue  ou  noire) 

Coloured  plates  and/or  illustrations/ 
Planches  et/ou  illustrations  en  couleur 

Bound  with  other  material/ 
Reli6  avec  d'autres  documents 

Tight  binding  may  cause  shadows  or  distortion 
along  interior  margin/ 

La  reliure  serree  peut  causer  de  I'ombre  ou  de  la 
distortion  le  long  de  la  marge  intdrieure 

Blank  leaves  added  during  restoration  may 
appear  within  the  text.  Whenever  possible,  these 
have  been  omitted  from  filming/ 
II  se  peut  que  certaines  pages  blanches  ajoutdes 
lors  d'une  restauration  apparaissent  dans  le  texte, 
mais,  lorsque  cela  dtait  possible,  ces  pages  n'ont 
pas  dtd  filmdes. 

Additional  comments:/ 
Commentaires  suppl^mentaires: 


L'lnstitut  a  microfilm^  le  meilleur  exemplaire 
qu'il  lui  a  6t6  possible  .'a  se  procurer.  Les  details 
de  cet  exemplaire  qui  sont  peut-dtre  uniques  du 
point  de  vue  bibliographique,  qui  peuvent  modifier 
une  image  reproduite,  ou  qui  peuvent  exiger  une 
modification  dans  la  m^thode  normale  de  filmage 
sont  indiquds  ci-dessous. 

□    Coloured  pages/ 
Pages  de  couleur 

□    Pages  damaged/ 
Pages  endommagdes 

□    Pages  restored  and/or  laminated/ 
Pages  restaurdes  et/ou  pelliculdes 


Tl 
to 


y 


□ 


Pages  discoloured,  stained  or  foxed/ 
Pages  d6color6es,  tachetdes  ou  piqu^es 


I      I    Pages  detached/ 


Tl 

P< 
oi 


O 

b« 
th 
si 
ol 
fii 
si 

Ol 


Pages  ddtachdes 

Showthrough/ 
Transparence 

Quality  of  prir 

Quality  indgale  de  I'impression 

Includes  supplementary  materii 
Comprend  du  materiel  supplementaire 

Only  edition  available/ 
Seule  Edition  disponible 


r~7|  Showthrough/ 

I      I  Quality  of  print  varies/ 

I      I  Includes  supplementary  material/ 

I      I  Only  edition  available/ 


Tl 
sf 
Tl 
w 

M 
di 
er 
be 

"1 
re 
m 


Pages  wholly  or  partially  obscured  by  errata 
slips,  tissues,  etc.,  have  been  refilmed  to 
ensure  the  best  possible  image/ 
Les  pages  totalement  ou  partiellement 
obscurcies  par  un  feuillet  d'errata,  une  pelure, 
etc.,  ont  6t6  filmdes  h  nouveau  de  facon  h 
obtenir  la  meilleure  image  possible. 


This  item  is  filmed  at  the  reduction  ratio  checked  below/ 

Ce  document  est  filmd  au  taux  de  reduction  indiqu6  ci-dessous. 


10X 

14X 

18X 

22X 

26X 

30X 

! 

4 

12X 

16X 

20X 

24X 

28X 

32X 

tails 
i  du 
odifier 
une 
mage 


The  copy  filmed  here  has  been  reproduced  thank* 
to  the  generosity  of: 

Douglas  Library 
Queen's  University 

The  images  appearing  here  are  the  best  quality 
possible  considering  the  condition  and  legibility 
of  the  original  copy  and  in  keeping  with  the 
^liming  contract  specifications. 


Original  copies  in  printed  paper  covers  are  filmed 
beginning  with  the  front  cover  and  ending  on 
the  last  page  with  a  printed  or  illustrated  impres- 
sion, or  the  back  cover  when  appropriate.  All 
other  original  copies  are  filmed  beginning  on  the 
first  page  with  a  printed  or  illustrated  impres- 
sion, and  ending  on  the  last  page  with  a  printed 
or  illustrated  impression. 


The  last  recorded  frame  on  each  microfiche 
shall  contain  the  symbol  -^  (meaning  "CON- 
TINUED "),  or  the  symbol  y  (meaning  "END"), 
whichever  applies. 


L'exemplaire  film*  fut  reproduit  grAce  k  la 
gAnArositi  de: 

Douglas  Library 
Queen's  University 

Les  images  suivantes  ont  6t6  reproduites  avec  le 
plus  grand  soin,  compte  tenu  de  la  condition  et 
de  la  nettet«  de  l'exemplaire  film6,  et  en 
conformity  avec  les  conditions  du  contrat  de 
filmage. 

Les  exemplaires  originaux  dont  la  couverture  en 
papier  est  imprimis  sont  filmAs  en  commenpant 
par  le  premier  plat  et  en  terminant  soit  par  la 
dernlAre  page  qui  comporte  une  empreinte 
d'impression  ou  d'illustration,  soit  par  le  second 
plat,  salon  le  cas.  Tous  les  autres  exemplaires 
originaux  sont  fiimis  en  commen9ant  par  la 
premiere  page  qui  comporte  une  empreinte 
d'impression  ou  d'illustration  et  en  terminant  par 
la  derniire  page  qui  comporte  une  telle 
empreinte. 

Un  des  symboles  suivants  apparaitra  sur  la 
dernldre  image  de  cheque  microfiche,  selon  le 
cas:  le  symbole  — ►  signifie  "A  SUIVRE ',  le 
symbols  V  signifie  "FIN". 


irrata 
to 


pelure, 
n  d 


□ 


32X 


Maps,  plates,  charts,  etc.,  may  be  filmed  at 
different  reduction  ratios.  Those  too  large  to  be 
entirely  included  in  one  exposure  are  filmed 
beginning  in  the  upper  left  hand  corner,  left  to 
right  and  top  to  bottom,  as  many  frames  as 
required.  The  following  diagrams  illustrate  the 
method: 


1 

2 

3 

Les  cartes,  planches,  tableaux,  etc.,  peuvent  dtre 
filmis  A  des  taux  de  reduction  diffirents. 
Lorsque  le  document  est  trop  grand  pour  dtre 
reproduit  en  un  seul  clich6,  il  est  film6  d  partir 
de  I'angle  supArieur  gauche,  de  gauche  d  droits, 
Gi  de  haut  en  bas,  en  prenant  le  nombre 
d'images  nicessaire.  Les  diagrammes  suivants 
illustrent  la  mithode. 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

r ' 


«T3S!3SESE3»;M:wXKEraEi:s:^ 


111 

U    ! 


a 

V 

t 
u 
A 
a. 
h 


3'     - 

I! 


Ci 
W 

St 

pc 
(; 

wi 
fn 
kr 
ea 


we 


an 
foi 
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als 
on 
tac 


<€^\h  ^outl)   3tcafleti0f. 


No.  30. 


Strabo's 

Introduction  to 

Geography 


THE    FIRST    CHAPTER    OK    STRAHO  S    CEOGRAPHV. 

1.  If  the  scientific  investigation  of  any  subject  be  the  proper 
avocation  of  the  philosopher,  Geography,  the  science  of  which 
we  propose  to  treat,  is  certainly  entitled  to  a  high  place ;  and 
this  is  evident  from  many  considerations.  They  who  first  vent- 
ured to  handle  the  matter  were  distinguished  men.  Homer, 
Anaximander  the  Milesian,  and  Hecataus  (his  fellow-citizen 
according  to  Eratosthenes),  Democritus,  Eudoxus,  Dicaearchus, 
Ephorus,  with  many  others,  and  after  these  P>atosthenes,  Po- 
lybius,  and  Posidonius,  all  of  them  philosophers. 

Nor  is  the  great  learning,  through  which  alone  this  subject 
can  be  approached,  possessed  by  any  but  a  person  acquainted 
with  both  human  and  divine  things,  and  these  attainments  con- 
stitute what  is  called  philosophy.  In  addition  to  its  vast  im- 
portance in  regard  to  social  life,  and  the  art  of  government. 
Geography  unfolds  to  us  the  celestial  phenomena,  acquaints  us 
with  the  occupants  of  the  land  and  ocean,  and  the  vegetation, 
fruits,  and  peculiarities  of  the  various  quarters  of  the  earth,  a 
knowledge  of  which  marks  him  who  cultivates  it  as  a  man 
earnest  in  the  great  problem  of  life  and  happiness. 

2.  Admitting  this,  let  us  examine  more  in  detail  the  points 
we  have  advanced. 

And,  first  [we  maintain],  that  both  we  and  our  predecessors, 
amongst  whom  is  Hipparchus,  do  justly  regard  Homer  as  the 
founder  of  geographical  science,  for  he  not  only  excelled  all, 
ancient  as  well  as  modern,  in  the  sublimity  of  his  poetry,  but 
also  in  his  experience  of  social  life.  Thus  it  was  that  he  not 
only  exerted  himself  to  become  familiar  with  as  many  historic 
tacts  as  possible,  and  transmit  them  to  posterity,  but  also  with 


ti 
ft 


^ 


n 


ti 


the  various  regions  of  tiie  inhabited  land  and  sea,  some  inti- 
mately, others  in  a  more  general  manner.  For  otherwise  he 
would  not  have  reached  the  utmost  limits  of  the  earth,  travers- 
ing it  in  his  imagination. 

3.  First,  he  stated  that  the  earth  was  entirely  encompassed 
by  the  ocean,  as  in  truth  it  is ;  afterwards  he  described  the 
countries,  specifying  some  by  name,  others  more  generally  by 
various  indications,  explicitly  defining  Libya,  Ethiopia,  the 
Sidonians,  and  the  Erembi  (by  which  latter  are  probably  in- 
tended the  Troglodyte  Arabians);  and  alluding  to  those  farther 
east  and  west  as  the  lands  washed  by  the  ocean,  for  in  ocean 
he  believed  both  the  sun  and  constellations  to  rise  and  set. 

"Now  from  tlie  gcntlv  swelling  flodd  ])rof()uiui 
The  sun  arising,  witli  his  earliest  rays. 
In  his  ascent  to  heaven  sniote  on  the  fields." 

"  And  now  the  radiant  sun  in  ocean  sank, 
Dragging  night  after  him  o'er  all  the  earth." 

The  stars  also  he  describes  as  bathed  in  the  ocean. 

4.  He  portrays  the  happiness  of  the  people  of  the  West,  and 
the  salubrity  of  their  climate,  having  no  doubt  heard  of  the 
abundance  of  Iberia,  which  had  attracted  the  arms  of  Her- 
cules, afterwards  of  the  Ph(enicians,  who  acquired  there  an 
extended  rule,  and  finally  of  the  Romans.  There  the  airs  of 
Zephyr  breathe,  there  the  poet  feigned  the  fields  of  Elysium, 
when  he  tells  us  Menelaus  was  sent  thither  by  the  gods; 

"Thee  the  gods 
Have  destined  to  the  blest  Elysian  isles, 
Earth's  utmost  boundaries.     Khadamanthus  there 
?'orever  reigns,  and  there  the  human  kind 
Enjoy  the  easiest  life  ;  no  snow  is  there, 
No  l)iting  winter,  and  no  drenching  shower, 
But  Zephyr  always  gently  from  the  sea 
Breathes  on  them,  to  refresh  the  happy  race." 

5.  The  Isles  of  the  Blest  are  on  the  extreme  west  of  Mauru- 
sia,  near  where  its  shore  runs  parallel  to  the  opposite  coast  of 
Spain ;  and  it  is  clear  he  considered  these  regions  also  Blest, 
from  their  contiguity  to  the  Islands. 

6.  He  tells  us,  also,  that  the  Ethiopians  are  far  removed,  and 
bounded  by  the  ocean  :  far  removed, — 

"The  Ethiopians,  utmost  of  mankind. 
These  eastward  situate,  those  toward  the  west." 

Nor  was  he  mistaken  in  calling  them  separated  into  two  di- 
visions, as  we  shall  presently  show  ;  and  next  to  the  ocean, — 


"  K(ir  to  tin-  Itaiiks  of  ilic  Oct-anus, 
Whure  l\tliio|)ia  holds  a  feast  to  Jove, 
He  journcy'd  yesterday." 

Speaking  of  the  Bear,  he  implies  that  the  most  northern  part  of 
the  earth  is  bounded  by  the  ocean  :  — 


"Only  star  of  these  denied 
'l\)  slake  his  beams  in  ( >cean's  brinv 


.aths." 


Now,  by  the  "Bear"  and  the  "Wain"  he  means  the  Arctic 
Circle  ;  otherwise  he  would  never  have  said,  "  It  d/i'/ir  is  de- 
prived of  the  baths  of  the  ocean."  when  such  an  infniity  of 
stars  is  to  be  seen  continually  revolving  in  that  pare  of  the 
hemisphere.  Let  no  one  any  longer  blame  his  ignorance  for 
being  merely  acquainted  with  one  Bear,  when  there  are  two. 
It  is  probable  that  the  second  was  not  considered  a  constella- 
tion until,  on  the  Phoenicians  specially  designating  it,  and  em- 
ploying it  in  navigation,  it  became  known  as  one  to  the  Greeks. 
Such  is  the  case  with  the  Hair  of  Berenice,  and  Canopus, 
whose  names  are  but  of  yesterday;  and,  as  Aratus  remarks, 
there  are  numbers  which  have  not  yet  received  any  designa- 
tion. Crates,  therefore,  is  mistaken  when,  endeavoring  to 
amend  what  is  correct,  he  reads  the  verse  thus  : 

replacing  olri  by  o?os,  with  a  view  to  make  the  adjective  agree 
with  the  Arctic  Circle,  which  is  masculine ;  instead  of  the 
Arctic  Constellation,  which  is  feminine.  The  expre.'^sion  of 
Heraclitus  is  far  more  preterable  and  Homeric,  who  thus  figu- 
ratively describes  the  Arctic  Circle  as  the  Bear, —  "The  Bear 
is  the  litr.it  of  the  dawn  and  of  the  evening,  and  from  the  re- 
gion of  the  Bear  we  have  fine  weather."  Now  it  is  not  the 
constellation  of  the  Bear,  but  the  Arctic  Circle,  which  is  the 
limit  of  the  rising  and  the  setting  stars. 

By  the  Bear,  then,  which  he  elsewhere  calls  the  Wain,  and 
describes  as  pursuing  Orion,  Homer  means  us  to  understand 
the  Arctic  Circle ;  and  by  the  ocean,  that  horizon  into  which, 
and  out  of  which,  the  stars  rise  and  set.  When  he  says  that 
the  Bear  turns  round  and  is  deprived  of  the  ocean,  he  was  aware 
that  the  Arctic  Circle  [always]  e.xtended  to  the  sign  opposite 
the  most  northern  point  of  the  horizon.  Adapting  the  words 
of  the  poet  to  this  view,  by  that  part  of  the  earth  nearest  to  the 
ocean  we  must  understand  the  hori/on,  and  by  the  Arctic 
Circle  that  which  extends  to  the  signs  which  seem  to  our  senses 
lo  touch  in  succession  the  most  northern  point  of  the  horizon. 
Thus,  according  to  him,  this  portion  of  the  earth  is  washed  by 


1  r 


il 


the  ocean.  Willi  the  nations  of  the  North  he  was  well  ac- 
(luainteci,  althouj^h  he  does  not  mention  them  by  name,  and  in- 
deed at  the  present  day  there  is  no  re<;ulat  title  by  which  they 
are  all  distinguished.  He  informs  us  of  their  mode  of  life,  de- 
scribing them  as  "wanderers,"  "noble  milkers  of  mares,"  "liv- 
ing on  cheese,"  and  "without  wealth." 

7.  In  the  following  speech  of  Juno,  he  states  that  the  ocean 
surrounds  the  earth  :  — 

"■  For  to  tlie  green  earth's  utmost  bounds  I  go 
To  visit  tiiere  the  jiarenl  of  the  gods, 
Oceanus." 

Does  he  not  here  assert  that  ocean  bounds  all  its  extremities, 
and  does  it  not  surround  these  extremities  ?  Again,  in  the 
Hoplop(Lia,  he  places  the  ocean  in  a  circle  round  the  border 
of  Achilles'  shield.  Another  proof  of  the  extent  of  his  knowl- 
edge is  his  acquaintance  with  the  ebb  and  How  of  the  sea,  call- 
ing it  "  the  ebbing  ocean."     Again, 

"  Kacli  day  she  thrice  disgorges,  and  again 
Thrice  drinks,  insatiate,  the  deluge  down." 

The  assertion  of  thrice,  instead  of  twice,  is  either  an  error  of 
the  author  or  a  blunder  of  the  scribe,  but  the  phenomenon  is 
the  same,  and  the  expression  soft-flowing  has  reference  to  the 
flood-tide,  which  has  a  gentle  swell,  and  does  not  flow  with  a 
full  rush.  Posidonius  believes  that  where  Homer  describes  the 
rocks  as  at  one  time  covered  with  the  waves,  and  at  another 
left  bare,  and  when  he  compares  the  ocean  to  a  river,  he  alludes 
to  the  flow  of  the  ocean.  The  first  supposition  is  correct,  but 
for  the  second  there  is  no  ground  ,  inasmuch  as  there  can  be  no 
comparison  between  the  flow,  much  less  the  ebb,  of  the  sea  and 
the  current  of  a  river.  There  is  more  probability  in  the  expla- 
nation of  Crates,  that  Homer  describes  the  whole  ocean  as 
deep  flowing,  ebbing,  and  also  calls  it  a  river,  and  that  he  also 
describes  a  part  of  tiie  ocean  as  a  river,  and  the  flow  of  a  river ; 
and  that  he  is  speaking  of  a  part,  and  not  the  whole,  when  he 
thus  writes :  — 

"  When  down  t!ie  smooth  Oceanus  impelled 
l]y  jirosjjerous  gales,  my  gallev,  once  again, 
Cleaving  the  billows  of  the  spacious  deep. 
Had  reach'd  the  .I'.aian  isle." 

He  does  not,  however,  mean  the  whole,  but  the  flow  of  the 
river  in  the  ocean,  which  forms  but  a  part  of  the  ocean.  Crates 
says  he  speaks  of  an  estuary  or  gulf,  extending  from  the  winter 
tropic  toward  the  south  pole.     Now,  any  one  quitting  this  might 


I 


5 


still  be  in  the  ocean  ;  but  for  a  person  to  leave  the  whole,  anil 
still  to  be  in  the  w'.iole,  is  an  iinpcssibility.  But  Homer  says 
that,  leaving  the  flow  of  the  river,  the  ship  entered  on  the  wavt-s 
of  the  sea,  which  is  the  sani<!  as  the  ocean.  If  you  lake  it  other- 
wise, you  make  him  say  that,  departing;  from  the  ocean,  he  came 
to  the  ocean.      I'ut  this  renuircs  further  discussion. 

iS.  Perception  and  experience  alike  infi^.n-  us  that  the  earth 
we  inhabit  is  an  island,  since,  wherever  men  have  approachetl 
the  termination  of  the  laiul,  the  sea,  which  we  designate  ocean, 
has  been  met  with  ;  and  reason  assures  us  of  the  similarity  of 
those  places  which  our  senses  have  not  been  permitted  to  sur- 
vey. For  in  the  east  the  land  occupied  by  the  Indians,  and  in 
the  west  by  the  Iberians  and  Maurusians,  is  wholly  encom- 
passed [by  water],  and  so  is  the  greater  part  on  the  south  and 
north.  And  as  to  what  remains  as  yet  unexplored  by  us,  be- 
cause navigators,  sailing  from  opposite  points,  have  not  hitherto 
fallen  in  with  each  other,  it  is  not  much,  as  any  one  may  see 
who  will  compare  the  distances  between  those  places  with 
which  we  are  already  acquainted.  Xor  is  it  likely  that  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  is  divided  into  two  seas  by  narrow  isthmuses 
so  placed  as  to  prevent  circumnavigation :  how  much  more 
probable  that  it  is  confluent  and  uninterrupted  !  Those  who 
have  returned  from  an  attempt  to  circumnavigate  the  earth  do 
not  say  they  have  been  prevented  from  continuing  their  voyage 
by  any  opposing  continent, —  for  the  sea  remained  perfectly 
open, —  but  through  want  of  resolution  and  the  scarcity  of 
provision.  This  theory,  too,  accords  better  with  the  ebb  and 
flow  of  the  ocean;  for  the  phenomenon,  both  in  the  increase 
and  diminution,  is  everywhere  identical,  or  at  all  events  has 
but  little  difference,  as  if  produced  by  the  agitation  of  one  sea 
and  resulting  from  one  cause. 

g.  We  must  not  credit  Hipparchus,  who  combats  this  opinion, 
denying  that  the  ocean  is  everywhere  similarly  affected  ;  or  that, 
even  if  it  were,  it  would  not  follow  that  the  Atlantic  flowed  in  a 
circle,  and  thus  continually  returned  into  itself.  Seleucus,  the 
Babylonian,  is  his  authority  for  this  assertion.  For  a  further 
investigation  of  the  ocean  and  its  tides  we  refer  to  Posidonius 
and  Athenodorus,  who  have  fully  discussed  this  subject  :  we 
will  now  only  remark  that  this  view  agrees  better  with  the  uni- 
formity of  the  phenomenon  ;  and  that  the  greater  the  amount 
of  moisture  surrounding  the  earth,  the  easier  would  the 
heavenly  bodies  be  supplied  with  vapors  from  thence. 

lo.  Homer,  besides  the  boundaries  of  the  earth,  which  he  fully 
describes,  was  likewise  well  acquainted  with  the  Mediterranean. 


^■^ 


I  i  I 


Starling  from  tlir  I'illars,  this  sea  is  encompassed  by  Libya, 
Ef^ypt,  and  IMiutiicia,  then  by  the  coasts  opposite  Cyprus,  the 
Solymi,  Lycii,  and  ('aria,  and  then  by  the  siiore  wiiich  stretches 
betwcL-n  Mycale  and  'I'roas,  and  tlie  adjacent  islands,  every  one 
of  which  he  mentions,  as  well  as  those  of  the  Propontis  and  the 
I'.nxine,  as  far  as  Colchis,  and  the  locality  of  Jason's  expedition. 
I"iirthernK)re,  he  was  ac(iuainied  with  the  Cimmerian  Hosphorus, 
havinj^  known  the  Cimnurian^,  and  tliat  not  merely  by  name, 
but  as  bi'in^'  familiar  wiiii  themselves.  About  this  time,  or  a 
little  before,  they  harl  ravnp^ed  the  whole  country,  from  the  I'os- 
phoriis  to  Ionia.  Tlieir  clima'e  he  characterizes  as  dismal,  in 
tiie  following  lines:  — 

"  Willi  iJc)U(l>  .111(1  'larkiu.'NS  veiled,  on  wIkhii  tlu'  siiii 
])figiis  not  ii>  luok  with  liis  hLMmdartiiig  eye, 

Hut  sad  night  canoi)ic.s  thi.'  wnliil  race.'' 

lie  must  also  have  been  acfjuainted  with  the  Ister.  since  he 
speaks  of  the  Mysians,  a  'J'hracian  race,  dwelling;  on  the  banks 
of  the  Ister.  He  knew  also  the  whole  'I'hracian  coast  adjacent 
thereto,  as  far  as  the  Peneus  ;  for  he  mentions  individually 
the  J'.ionians,  .Alhos,  the  Axius,  and  the  neighboring  islands. 
P'rom  hence  to  Thesprotis  is  the  Grecian  shore,  with  the  whole 
of  which  he  was  acquainted.  He  was  besides  familiar  with  the 
whole  of  Italy,  and  speaks  of  Temese  and  the  Sicilians,  as  well 
as  the  whole  of  Spain  and  its  fertility,  as  we  have  said  before. 
]f  he  omits  various  intermediate  places,  this  must  be  pardoned', 
for  even  the  compiler  of  a  Geography  overlooks  numerous  de- 
tails. We  must  forgive  him,  too.  for  intermingling  fabulous 
narrative  with  his  historical  and  instructive  work.  This  should 
not  be  complained  of  :  nevertheless,  what  Eratosthenes  says  is 
false,  that  the  poets  aim  at  amusement,  not  instruction,  since 
those  who  have  treated  upon  the  subject  most  profoundly  re- 
gard jxjesy  in  the  light  of  a  i)rimitive  philosophy.  But  we  shall 
refute  Eratosthenes  more  at  length,  when  we  have  occasion 
again  to  speak  of  Homer. 

II.  What  we  have  already  advanced  is  sufficient  to  prove 
that  poet  the  father  of  geography.  Those  who  followed  in  his 
track  are  also  well  known  as  great  men  and  true  philosophers. 
The  two  immediately  succeeding  Homer,  according  to  Eratos- 
thenes, were  Anaximander,  the  disciple  and  fellow-citizen  of 
Thales,  and  Hecat;i,'us  the  Milesian,  Anaximander  was  the 
first  to  publish  a  geographical  chart.  Hecat;i^us  left  a  work  [on 
the  same  subject],  which  we  can  identify  as  his  by  means  of  his 
other  writings. 


lid 

IS 

ice 
re- 
lall 
ion 


12.  Many  have  testified  to  the  amount  oi'  knowledge  which 
this  subject  rt.'(|nirt's ;  and  llipparchus,  in  his  Strictures  on 
IlratDSihcni's,  well  obs^Tves  "that  no  one  can  become  really 
proficient  in  geojj;raphy,  either  as  a  private  individual  or  as 
a  ijrol'essor,  without  an  acquaintance  witii  astronoin\.  and 
a  knowledge  of  eclipses.  I'or  instance,  no  one  could  tell 
wiiether  Alexandria  in  I'-gypt  were  north  or  south  of  15aby!on. 
nor  yet  the  intervening  distance,  without  observing  the  l.ititudes. 
Again,  the  only  means  we  possess  cjf  l)econiing  acquainted  with 
the  longitudes  of  dilYerent  places  is  alVorded  i)y  the  ec  lipses  of 
the  sun  and  moon."     Such  are  the  very  words  of  Hipp.irchus. 

I  V  i'.very  one  who  undertakes  to  give  an  accurate  descrip- 
tion of  a  place  should  be  jiarticular  to  add  its  astronomical 
and  geometrical  relations,  explaining  carefully  its  extent,  dis- 
tance, degrees  of  latitude,  and  "climate."  l'"ven  a  builder 
before  constructing  a  house,  or  an  architect  before  lavinjr  out 
a  city,  would  take  these  things  into  consideration  :  nnuh  more 
should  he  who  examines  the  whole  earth,  for  such  things  in 
a  peculiar  manner  belong  to  him.  In  small  distances  a  little 
deviation  north  or  south  does  not  signify,  but  when  it  is  the 
whole  circle  of  the  earth,  the  north  extends  to  the  furthest  con- 
fines of  Scythia,  or  Iveltica,  and  the  south  to  the  extremities  of 
iahiopia:  there  is  a  wide  difference  here.  The  case  is  the 
same,  should  we  inhabit  India  or  Spain,  one  in  the  east,  the 
other  far  west,  and.  as  we  are  aware,  the  antipodes  to  each 
other. 

14.  The  [motions]  of  the  sun  and  stars  and  the  centripetal 
force  meet  us  on  the  very  threshold  of  such  subjects,  and  com- 
pel us  to  the  study  of  astronomy,  and  the  observation  of  such 
phencjmena  as  each  of  us  may  notice  ;  in  which,  too,  very  con- 
siderable differences  appear,  according  to  the  various  points  of 
observation.  How  could  any  one  undertake  to  write  accurately 
and  with  propriety  on  the  differences  of  the  various  parts  of  the 
earth,  who  was  ignorant  of  these  matters?  and  although,  if  the 
untlertaking  were  of  a  popular  character,  it  might  not  be  advis- 
able to  enter  thoroughly  into  detail,  still  we  should  endeavor  to 
include  everything  which  could  be  comprehended  by  the  gen- 
eral reader. 

15.  He  who  has  thus  elevated  his  mind,  will  he  be  satisfied 
with  anything  less  than  the  whole  world  ?  If,  in  his  anxiety 
accurately  to  portray  the  inhabited  earth,  he  has  dared  to 
survey  heaven,  and  make  use  thereof  for  purposes  of  instruc- 
tion, would  it  not  seem  childish,  were  he  to  refrain  from  examin- 
ing the  whole  earth,  of  which  the  inhabited  is  but  a  part, —  its 


J 1: 


4 

,1 


1( 


im 


■   '( 


size,  its  features,  and  its  position  in  the  universe:  whether 
other  portions  are  inhabited  besides  those  on  which  we  dwell, 
and,  if  so,  their  amount  ?  What  is  the  extent  of  the  rej^dons 
not  peopled  ?  what  their  peculiarities,  and  the  cause  of  their 
reinaininj^  as  they  are  ?  Thus  it  appears  that  the  knowledj^e 
of  geography  is  connected  with  meteorology  and  geometry, 
that  it  unites  the  things  of  earth  lo  the  things  of  heaven,  as 
thf)ugh  they  were  nearly  allied  ;iiid  not  separated. 

"As  far  as  heaven  from  cartli." 

i6.  To  the  various  subjects  which  it  embraces  let  us  add 
natural  history,  or  the  history  of  the  animals,  plants,  and  other 
dirfferent  productions  of  the  earth  and  sea,  whether  serviceable 
or  useless,  and  my  original  statement  will,  I  think,  carry  perfect 
conviction  with  it. 

'I'hat  he  who  should  undertake  this  work  would  be  a  bene- 
factor to  mankind,  reason  and  the  voice  of  anticiuiiy  agree. 
'I'he  poets  feign  that  they  were  the  wisest  heroes  who  travelled 
and  wandered  most  in  foreign  climes,  and  to  be  familiar  with 
many  countries,  and  the  disposition  of  the  inhabitants,  is, 
according  to  them,  of  vast  importance.  Nestor  prides  himself 
on  Slaving  associated  with  the  Lapitha,  to  whom  he  went, 
"having  been  invited  thither  from  the  Apian  land  afar." 

So  does  Menelaus  :  — 

"Cyprus,  rhcL'iiiiia,  Sidon,  :iiul  the  shores 
Of  Kgypt,  roaming  witaout  liope  I  reach'd ; 
In  distant  Ethiojiia  thence  arrived. 
Ant!  Lihya,  wiurc  thi'  land)s  tiieir  foreheads  show 
With  budding  horns  defended  ^oon  as  yean'd." 

Adding  as  a  peculiarity  of  the  country, 

"There  thrice  within  the  year  the  flocks  produce." 

And  of  Egypt :  "  Where  the  sustaining  earth  is  most  prolific." 
And  Thebes, 

"The  city  witli  an  luindred  gates, 
Whence  twenty  thousand  cliariots  rush  to  war." 

Such  information  greatly  enlarges  our  sphere  of  knowledge, 
by  informing  us  of  the  nature  of  the  country,  its  botanical  and 
zoological  peculiarities.  To  these  should  be  added  its  marine 
history  ;  for  we  are  in  a  certain  sense  amphibious,  not  exclu- 
sivelv  connected  with  the  land,  but  with  the  sea  as  well.  Her- 
cules,  on  account  of  his  vast  experience  and  observation,  was 
described  as  "  skilled  in  mighty  works." 

All  that  we  have  previously  stated  is  contirmed  both  by  the 


H 


testimony  of  antiquity  and  by  reason.  One  con>i(lfration,  how- 
ever, a|)pears  to  l)t'ar  in  a  peculiar  manner  o?i  the  case  in 
point ,  viz.,  the  importance  of  ;;('oj;ra|)ii\-  in  a  politic. il  view. 
I'or  the  sea  an:l  the  earth  in  which  we  dwell  furnish  theatres 
tor  action;  limited,  for  limited  actions;  vast,  for  {grander 
deeds,  hut  that  which  contains  them  all,  and  is  the  scene  of 
the  greatest  undertakings,  constitutes  what  we  term  the  habit- 
able earth  ;  and  they  are  the  <;reatest  {generals  who,  subduing 
nations  and  kinj;doms  under  one  sceptre,  and  one  political 
administration,  have  acquired  dominion  o\'er  land  and  sea.  It 
is  clear,  then,  that  }i;eo{j;raphy  is  essential  to  all  th*;  transactions 
of  the  statesman,  informing  us,  as  it  does,  of  the  position  of  the 
continents,  seas,  and  oceans  of  the  whole  habitable  earth.  In- 
formation of  especial  interest  to  those  who  are  concerned  to 
know  the  exact  truth  of  such  p.?-*irulars,  and  whether  the  places 
have  been  explored  or  not;  for  ,';oveinment  will  certainly  be 
better  administered  where  the  si/t  and  position  of  the  country, 
its  own  peculiarities,  and  thos'^  ot  the  surrounding  disti'cts,  are 
understood.  Forasmuch  aj  ..here  are  ..lany  sovereigns  who 
rule  in  different  regions,  and  some  stretch  their  dominion  over 
others'  territorle".,  and  undertake  ;  iC  j^overnment  of  different 
nations  and  kingdon.s,  and  tl  as  ^ularge  the  extent  of  their  do- 
minion, it  is  not  possible  thai  either  themselves,  nor  yet  writers 
on  geography,  should  be  equally  acquainf^-d  with  the  whole, 
but  lO  both  there  is  a  great  doal  more  or  less  known.  Indeed, 
were  the  whole  earth  under  one  government  and  one  adminis- 
tration, it  is  hardly  possible  that  we  should  be  informed  of 
every  locality  in  an  equal  degree ;  for  even  then  we  should  be 
most  acquainted  with  the  places  nearest  us :  and,  after  all,  it 
is  better  that  we  should  have  a  more  perfect  description  of 
these,  since,  on  account  of  their  proximity,  there  is  greater 
need  for  it.  We  see  there  is  no  reason  to  be  surprised  that 
there  should  be  one  chorographer  for  the  Indians,  another  for 
the  Ethiopians,  and  a  third  for  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  What 
use  would  it  be  to  the  Indians  if  a  geographer  should  thus 
describe  Bteotia  to  them,  in  the  words  of  Homer?  — 

"Tilt;  ilwellers  on  the  rocks 
Of  Aulis  followM,  with  the  hardy  clans 
Of  Ilyria,  Schcenus,  Scoliis." 

To  US  this  is  of  value,  while  to  be  acquainted  with  the  Indies 
and  their  various  territorial  divisions  would  be  useless,  as  it 
could  lead  to  no  advantage,  which  is  the  only  criterion  of  the 
worth  of  such  knowledge. 

17.  Even  if  we  descend  to  the  consideration  of  such  trivial 


I.' 


!;)); 


.1 


Ml 


•1     II 
i 


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I 


ir 


5 


!^ 


matters  as  hunting,  the  case  is  still  the  same  ;  for  he  will  be 
most  successful  in  the  chase  who  is  acquainted  with  the  size 
and  nature  of  the  wood,  and  one  familiar  with  the  locality 
will  be  the  most  competent  to  superintend  an  encampment, 
an  ambush,  or  a  march.  But  it  is  in  great  undertakings  that 
the  truth  shines  out  in  all  its  brilliancy ;  for  here,  "'hile  the 
success  resulting  from  knowledge  is  grand,  the  consequences 
of  ignorance  are  disastrous.  The  Heet  of  Agamemnon,  for  in- 
stance, ravaging  Mysia,  as  if  it  had  been  the  Trojan  territory, 
was  compelled  to  a  shameful  retreat.  Likewise  the  Persians 
and  Libyans,  supposing  certain  straits  to  be  impassable,  were 
very  near  falling  into  great  perils,  and  have  left  behind  them 
memorials  of  their  ignorance;  the  former  a  monument  to  Sal- 
ganeus  on  the  Euripus,  near  Chalcis,  v^hom  the  Persians  slew, 

'  for,  as  they  thought,  falsely  conducting  their  fleet  from  the 
Gulf  of  Malea  to  the  Euripus;  and  the  latter  to  the  memory  of 
Pelorus,  who  was  executed  on  a  like  occasion.  At  the  time  of 
the  expedition  of  Xerxes  the  coasts  of  Greece  were  covered 
with  wrecks,  and  the  emigrations  from  /Kolia  and  Ionia  furnish 
numerous  instances  of  the  same  calamity.  On  the  other  hand, 
matters  have  come  to  a  prosperous  termination,  when  judi- 
ciously directed  by  a  knowledge  of  the  locality.  Thus  it  was 
at  the  pass  of  Thermopylns  that  Ephialtes  is  reported  to  have 
pointed  out  to  the  Persians  a  pathway  over  the  mountains,  and 
so  placed  the  band  of  Leonidas  at  their  mercy,  and  opened  to 
the  Barbarians  a  passage  into  Pyla;.  But,  passing  over  ancient 
occurrences,  we  think  that  the  late  expeditions  of  the  Romans 
against  the  Parthians  furnish  an  excellent  example,  where,  as  in 
those  against  the  Germans  and   Kelts,  the  Barbarians,  taking 

.  advantage  of  their  situation,  [carried  on  the  war]  in  marshes, 
woods,  and  pathless  deserts,  deceiving  the  ignorant  enemy  as  to 
the  position  of  different  places,  and  concealing  the  roads  and 
the  means  of  obtaining  food  and  necessaries. 

1 8.  As  we  have  said,  this  science  has  an  especial  reference 
to  the  occupations  and  requirements  of  statesmen,  with  whom 
also  political  and  ethical  philosophy  is  mainly  concerned ;  and 
here  is  an  evidence.  We  distinguish  the  different  kinds  of  civil 
government  by  the  office  of  their  chief  men,  denominating  one 
government  a  monarchy,  or  kingdom,  another  an  aristocracy,  a 
third  a  democracy ;  for  so  many  we  consider  are  the  forms  of 
government,  and  we  designate  them  by  these  names,  because 
from  them  they  derive  their  primary  characteristic.  For  the 
laws  which  emanate  from  the  sovereign,  from  the  aristocracy, 
and  from  the  people,  all  are  different.     The  law  is,  in  fact,  a  type 


II 


le 


of  the  form  of  government.  It  is  on  this  account  that  some 
define  right  to  be  the  interest  of  the  strongest.  If,  therefore, 
political  philosophy  is  advantageous  to  the  ruler,  and  geography 
in  the  actual  government  of  the  country,  this  latter  seems  to 
possess  some  little  superiority.  This  superiority  is  most  observ- 
able in  real  service. 

.9.  But  even  the  theoretical  portion  of  geography  is  by  no 
means  contemptible.  On  the  one  hand,  it  embraces  the  arts, 
mathematics,  and  natural  science ;  on  the  other,  history  and 
fable.  Not  that  this  latter  can  have  anv  distinct  advantage  : 
for  instance,  if  any  one  should  relate  to  us  the  wanderings  of 
Ulysses,  Menelaus,  and  Jason,  he  would  not  seem  to  have 
added  directly  to  our  fund  of  practical  knowledge  thereby 
(which  Is  the  only  thing  men  of  the  world  are  interested  in) 
unless  he  should  convey  useful  examples  of  what  those  wan- 
derers vvere  compelled  to  suffer,  and  at  the  same  time  afford 
matter  of  rational  amusement  to  those  who  interest  themselves 
in  the  places  which  gave  birth  to  such  fables.  Practical  men 
inte.rest  themselves  in  these  pursuits,  since  they  are  at  once 
commendable,  and  afford  them  pleasure,  but  yet  not  to  any 
great  extent.  In  this  class,  too,  will  be  found  those  whose 
main  object  in  life  is  pleasure  and  respectability;  but  these 
by  no  means  constitute  the  majority  of  mankind,  who  naturally 
prefer  that  which  holds  out  some  direct  advantage.  The  geog 
rapher  should  therefore  chietiy  devote  himself  to  what  is  prac 
tically  important.  He  should  follow  the  same  rule  in  regard  to 
history  and  the  mathematics,  selecting  always  that  which  is 
most  useful,  most  intelligible,  and  most  authentic. 

20.  Geometry  and  astronomy,  as  we  before  remarked,  seem 
absolutely  indispensable  in  this  science.  Tliis,  in  fact,  is  evi- 
dent, that  without  some  such  assistance  it  would  be  impossible 
to  be  accurately  acquainted  with  the  contiguration  of  the  earth, 
its  climata,  dimensions,  and  the  like  information. 

.\s  the  size  of  the  earth  has  been  demonstrated  by  other 
writers,  we  shall  here  take  for  granted  and  receive  as  accurate 
what  they  have  advanced.  We  shall  also  assume  that  the  earth 
is  spheroidal,  that  its  surface  is  likewise  spheroidal,  and,  above 
all,  that  bodies  have  a  tendency  towards  its  centre,  which  latter 
point  is  clear  to  the  perception  of  the  most  average  understand- 
ing,, However,  we  may  show  summarily  that  the  earth  is  sphe- 
roidal from  ihe  consideration  that  all  things  however  distant 
tend  to  its  centre,  and  that  every  body  is  attracted  towards  its 
centre  of  gravity :  this  is  more  distinctly  proved  from  observa- 
tions of  the  sea  and  sky,  for  here  the  evidence  of  the  senses. 


12 


'1' 


i.      ^    ! 


and  common  observation,  is  alone  requisite.  The  convexity  of 
tiie  sea  is  a  further  proof  of  this  to  those  who  have  sailed;  for 
they  cannot  perceive  lights  at  a  distance  when  placed  at  the 
same  level  as  their  eyes,  but,  if  raised  on  high,  they  at  once  be- 
come perceptible  to  vision,  though  at  the  same  time  further 
removed.  So,  when  the  eye  is  raised,  it  sees  what  before  was 
utterly  imperceptible.     Homer  speaks  of  this  when  he  says, 

"Lifted  lip  on  the  vast  wave,  lie  (|uickly  beheld  afar." 

Sailors,  as  they  approach  their  destination,  behold  the  shore 
continually  raising  itself  to  their  view;  and  objects  which  had 
at  first  seemed  low  begin  to  elevate  themselves.  Our  gnomons, 
also,  are,  among  other  things,  evidence  of  the  revolution  of  the 
heavenly  bodies;  and  common  sense  at  once  shows  us  that,  if 
the  depth  of  the  earth  were  infinite,  sucK  a  revolution  could  not 
take  place. 

Every  information  respecting  the  climata  is  contained  in  the 
"  Treatises  on  Positions." 

2  1.  Now  there  are  some  facts  which  we  take  to  be  estab- 
lished ;  namely,  those  with  whicii  every  politician  and  general 
should  be  familiar.  For  on  no  account  should  they  be  so  unin- 
formed as  to  the  heavens  and  the  position  of  the  earth  that 
when  they  are  in  strange  countries,  where  some  of  the  heavenly 
phenomena  wear  a  different  aspect  to  what  they  have  been  ac- 
customed, they  should  be  in  a  consternation,  and  exclaim, 

"  Neither  west 
Know  we,  n,or  east,  where  rises  or  where  sets 
The  all-enlighlening  sun." 

Still,  we  do  not  expect  that  they  should  be  such  thorough  mas- 
ters of  the  subject  as  to  know  what  stars  rise  and  set  together 
for  the  different  quarters  of  the  earth  ;  those  which  have  the 
same  meridian  line,  the  elevation  of  the  poles,  the  signs  which 
are  in  the  zenith,  with  all  the  various  phenomena  which  differ 
as  well  in  appearance  as  reality  with  the  variations  of  the 
horizon  and  arctic  circle.  With  some  of  these  matters,  unless 
as  philosophical  pursuits,  they  should  not  burden  themselves  at 
all ;  others  they  must  take  for  granted  without  searching  into 
their  causes.  This  must  be  left  to  the  care  of  the  philosopher ; 
the  statesman  can  have  no  leisure,  or  very  little,  for  such  pur- 
suits. Those  who,  through  carelessness  and  ignorance,  are  not 
familiar  with  the  globe  and  the  circles  traced  upon  it,  some 
parallel  to  each  other,  some  at  right  angles  to  the  former, 
others,  again,  in  an  oblique  direction  ;  nor  yet  with  the  position 
of  the  tropics,  equator,  and  zodiac  (that  circle  through  which 


I ;; 


the  sun  travels  in  his  course,  and  by  which  we  reckon  the 
changes  of  season  and  the  winds), —  such  persons  we  caution 
against  the  perusal  of  our  work.  For  if  a  man  is  neither  prop- 
erly acquainted  with  these  things,  nor  with  the  variations  of  the 
horizon  and  arctic  circle,  and  such  similar  elements  of  mathe- 
matics, how  can  he  comprehend  the  matters  treated  of  here  ? 
So  for  one  who  does  not  know  a  right  line  from  a  curve,  nor  yet 
a  circle,  nor  a  plane  or  spherical  surface,  nor  the  seven  stars  in 
the  firmament  composing  the  Great  Bear,  and  such  like,  our 
work  is  entirely  useless,  at  least  for  the  present.  Unless  he 
first  acquires  such  information,  he  is  utterly  incompetent  to  the 
study  of  geography.  So  those  who  have  written  the  works  en- 
titled "On  Ports,"  ''Voyages  round  the  World,"  have  per- 
formed their  task  imperfectly,  since  they  have  omitted  to  sup- 
ply the  requisite  information  from  mathematics  and  astronomy. 

22.  The  present  undertaking  is  composed  in  a  lucid  style, 
suitable  alike  to  the  statesman  and  the  general  reader,  after 
the  fashion  of  my  History.  By  a  statesman  we  do  not  intend 
an  illiterate  person,  but  one  who  has  gone  through  the  course 
of  a  liberal  and  philosophical  education.  For  a  man  who  has 
bestowed  no  attention  on  virtue  or  intelligence,  nor  what  con- 
stitutes them,  must  be  incompetent  either  to  blame  or  praise, 
still  less  to  decide  what  actions  are  worthy  to  be  placed  on 
record. 

23.  Having  already  compiled  our  Historical  Memoirs,  which, 
as  we  conceive,  are  a  valuable  addition  both  to  political  and 
moral  philosophy,  we  have  now  determined  to  follow  it  up  with 
the  present  work,  which  has  been  prepared  on  the  same  system 
as  the  former,  and  for  the  same  class  of  readers,  but  more 
particularly  for  those  who  are  in  high  stations  of  life.  And 
as  our  former  production  contains  only  the  most  striking  events 
in  the  lives  of  distinguished  men,  omitting  trifling  and  unim- 
portant incidents,  so  here  it  will  be  proper  to  dismiss  small 
and  doubtful  particulars,  and  merely  call  attention  to  great  and 
remarkable  transactions,  such  in  fact  as  are  useful,  memorable, 
and  entertaining.  In  the  colossal  works  of  the  sculptor  we  do 
not  descend  into  a  minute  examination  of  particulars,  but  look 
j^rincipally  for  perfection  in  the  general  ensemble.  This  is  the 
only  method  of  criticism  applicable  to  the  present  work.  Its 
proportions,  so  to  speak,  are  colossal ;  it  deals  in  the  general- 
ities and  main  outlines  of  things,  except  now  and  then,  when 
some  minor  detail  can  be  selected,  calculated  to  be  serviceable 
to  the  seeker  after  knowledge  or  the  man  of  business. 

We  now  think  we  have  demonstrated  that  our  presenc  under- 


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15 

taking  is  one  that  requires  great  care,  and  is  well  worthy  of  a 
philosopher. 


m 


Slrabo,  the  most  famous  geographer  of  ancient  times,  lived  just  at  tlie 
beginning  of  our  era.  He  was  born  at  Amasea  in  I'ontus,  about  sixty  vcais 
liefore  the  birth  of  Christ,  and  died,  probably  at  Rome,  about  twciitv-five 
years  after  the  birth  of  Christ, —  that  is,  just  as  Christ  was  beginnini,'  his 
public  ministry.  He  lived,  therefore,  during  the  reign  at  Rome  of  Julius 
C?esar,  Augustus,  and  Tiberius,  llis  earliest  writings  were  two  historical 
works  no,v  lost.  Plutarch  calls  him  "the  philosopher,"  and  (j notes  lii> 
Memoirs.  But  his  great  work  is  his  Geo^t^^rnp/iy.  There  had  been  GreeU 
geogr.aj)hers  before  Strabo,  and  Eratosthenes  is  considered  by  some  scholars 
an  even  greater  geograjiher  than  Strabo;  but  .Strabo's  work  is  the  most 
comprehensive  that  had  been  attempted  up  to  his  time,  giving  a  survey  of 
the  whole  world  as  then  known.  His  work,  as  Humboldt  remarked,  "  sur- 
passes all  the  geographical  writings  of  anti(|uily,  both  in  grandeur  of  pl.ui 
and  in  the  abundance  and  variety  of  its  materials."  Strabo  was  a  great 
traveller,  although  he  had  of  course  seen  but  a  comparatively  snull  |)ortion 
of  the  regions  he  descril)es,  and  necessarily  relies  on  other  travellers  and 
writers.  He  had  a  passionate  love  for  Homer,  as  appears  from  the  pass.ige 
given  in  the  present  leaflet,  and  accejJted  fully  the  Homeric  geographv. 
Towards  Herodotus,  on  the  other  hand,  he  is  very  unjust,  and  his  slight 
regard  for  the  accounts  of  Herodotus  betrays  him  into  mistakes.  He  refers 
to  Caesar's  Commentaries  once,  and  evidently  made  further  use  of  them. 
He  designed  his  work,  he  tells  us,  largely  for  the  statesman  ;  and  his  obser- 
vations upon  the  people,  productions,  and  political  conditions  of  the  dif- 
ferent countries  are  therefore  especially  full. 

Strabo's  Geography  consists  of  seventeen  books.  The  first  two  form 
a  general  introduction,  the  ne.xt  ten  deal  with  Europe,  the  four  following 
with  Asia,  and  the  last  with  Africa.  His  discussions,  in  his  introduction,  of 
the  changes  in  the  earth's  surface  effected  by  earthtpiakes  and  otherwise 
are  praised  by  Sir  Charles  I.yell  and  others  for  the  soundness  of  their  geo- 
logical theories.  He  denies  the  existence  of  Thule,  making  Ireland  (lerne), 
which  lie  places  north  of  Britain,  the  farthest  land  in  that  direction.  He 
regards  the  Cas])ian  Sea  as  opening  into  the  N'orthern  Ocean,  lierc  follow- 
ing Patrocles.  Of  Eastern  Asia  and  Northern  Africa  of  course  he  knows 
but  little.  He  held  the  earth  to  be  spherical,  and  placed  in  the  centre  of 
the  universe.  His  illustrations  of  the  spheroidal  form  of  the  earth  are  the 
same  as  in  our  own  school  geograjihies.  The  earth's  circumference  he  makes 
25,200  geographical  miles.  He  gives  directions  for  making  a  plane  map  of 
the  world,  as  a  globe  of  sufficient  size  is  so  cumbrous.  The  most  famou^; 
passage  in  his  book  is  that  (Book  I.,  chap,  iv.,  §  6)  in  which  he  conjectures 
that,  as  the  inhabited  world  was  only  one-third  of  the  globe's  circumference, 
there  might  be  two  or  more  continents  besides  that  then  known.  "It  is 
quite  possible,"  are  his  words,  "that  in  the  temperate  zone  there  may  be 
two  or  even  more  habitable  earths,  especially  near  the  circle  of  latitude 
which  is  drawn  through  Athens  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean." 

There  is  an  English  translation  of  Strabo's  Geography,  in  three  vol- 
umes, in  Bohn's  Library.  The  student  should  also  read  the  article  on 
Strabo  in  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica.  The  more  thorough  student  will 
consult  Bunbury's  great  History  of  Ancient  Geography :  the  account  of 
Strabo  and  his  work  is  in  the  second  volume  of  this  work.  The  work  is 
full  of  most  valuable  maps  of  the  world,  according  to  Eratosthenes, 
Ptolemy,  and  others,  including  the  map  reproduced  in  the  present  leaflet. 


.i 


i6 

In  the  Ahirrath'c  and  Critical  History  of  America,  vol.  i.,  there  is  a 
valuable  chapter  on  "The  Geographical  Knowledge  of  the  Ancients  consid- 
ered in  Relation  to  the  Discovery  of  America,"  by  William  II.  Tillinghast, 
which  should  have  special  attention. 

On  the  whole,  it  is  remarkable  how  little  geographical  science  was 
extended  between  the  time  of  Strabo  and  the  time  of  Columbus,  although 
the  travels  of  Marco  Polo  and  the  explorations  of  the  Portuguese  naviga- 
tors were,  of  course,  most  important.  The  name  of  Ptolemy,  who  lived 
about  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  after  Christ,  was  still  the  dominant  name 
in  geography  in  the  fifteenth  century.  The  student  is  referred  to  the  allu- 
sions to  I'tolemy  and  the  other  early  geographers  down  to  Toscanelli,  who 
corres])onded  with  Columbus  and  furnished  him  with  the  map  of  the  world 
which  he  carried  with  him  on  his  voyage,  in  the  first  volume  of  Fiske's 
Discovery  of  America^  pp.  263,  etc.  This  work  of  Mr.  Fiske's  covers  the 
whole  period  treated  in  the  Old  South  lectures  for  1S92,  in  a  most  interest- 
ing and  thorough  manner;  and  it  is  especially  commended  for  reading  in 
connection  with  the  subject. 


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